Article by Brijendra S. Shrivastava

Full of pearls a bowl I kept
Upside down on every one’s crown
In all directions the bowl moves
But Not a single pearl rolls down

-A Hindi folk Child’s Quiz

Sky has always fascinated human psyche as the history of Astronomy suggests. When we look at sky it evokes mixed feelings of joy, wonder, admiration, mysticism and challenge. It has an unconscious yet constantly expanding horizon of individual human consciousness and has transformed into social consciousness because sky is one of those natural phenomena which is common to all. With its early advent from anthropocentric universe to geo-centric universe and from geocentric to heliocentric universe and from there to galaxy centric universe; from multi-galactic cosmos up to Cosmology of universal oneness, our awareness about ‘we’ has undergone a paradigm shift every time affecting our understanding of global relationships. Sky has also contributed in the advancement of mathematics science and philosophy.

V.Komarov, science writer has observed that if we trace the history of many sciences we find that mankind has been immensely benefited by the study of the universe [1].

Einstein had every reason to say that intellectual potential without which modern technology would have been inconceivable, is mainly drawn on observations of the stars.

1. Contribution Of Brahmagupta And Other Astronomer Mathematicians

1.1-Indian Astronomers-Astrologers through cultural synergy with Central Asia between early 8^th century to 12^th century have also contributed in the advancement of various sciences particularly astronomy and mathematics and also astrology. This Indo-Arab relationship gave both momentum and direcion to this ‘Expansion-of consciousness-mission’ carried out by mankind in this part of world, when Europe was in slumber[2]. The Arabic translation of Sanskrit Greek and other literature later translated in Latin provided a great help to European great Renaissance or reawakening from around 11^th -12^th century AD onwards as acknowledged by many European scholars and historians

1.2-After Mohammad Sahib, Caliph Al Mansoor founded Baghdad in 762AD Indian scholars visited the Caliph during 772-773 AD with Astronomical Astrological books, which were translated in Arabic, on the order of Al Mansoor. Confirming this, Ebenezer Berges in his translation (1860) of Surya Siddhant of Hindu Astronomy has quoted Bin Al Admi from the astronomical tables of planetary positions worked out by Admi and published in 920AD that during the regime of Caliph Al Mansoor (773AD) one Indian Astrologer visited the court along with table of planets, observations on eclipses and coordinates of zodiacal signs. This fact was also quoted by Colebrooke in his ‘Hindu Algebra’2.

1.3-At that time, arithmetic, geometry, spherical trigonometry and algebra were part of Astronomy. In Arabic two works are most famous : SindHind And Al Arkand, both were translation of BrahmaGupta’s Braahma Sphuta Siddhantas Sindhind and Khand Khandak as Al Arkand These works were translated by Persian scholar Yakoob Ibn Taatiq and Arabian AlFazaari’s son Mohammad in Arabic with the help of Indian Pundits. Later on several translations were done and Al Beruni 973-1048AD also did one,

1.4-Edward C. Sachau, a German scholar who translated Al-Beruni has observed that in the history of science and knowledge in eastern countries, Brahmagupta ranks very high.Brahmagupta taught Astronomy-Astrlogy to Arabs before they came to know about Ptolemy[3]. From Brahmagupta’s Brahmasphuta Siddhant, Arabic scholar Ibrahim Ibn Habib-Al-Phazaari took basic elements and computation method and prepared tables in Mohammadan lunar months.

1.5-Yakoob Ibn Taarik authored Tarqueeb-Al-Aflaaqor Construction of Astronomical Sphere based on elements of Brahmagupta brought by another group of scholars in 161Hizri or 777-778AD in Baghdad from India.

1.6-Great Islamic Mathematician Al Khwaarismi (b783 AD) authored two books on Indian ganita and Beeja ganita-‘Hisaab Al Hind’ or ‘Kitaab al zaam’ and ‘Tafreek Bi Hisaab Al Hind’ explaining zero based decimal place value mathematics Number system called Hind Kaa Hisaab. Hisaab al Hind is not available in Arabic but was found from Spain’s Arabic center (1126 AD) in Latin as Liber Algorizmi de Numero Indurum meaning book of Alkhwarizmi on Hind’s Numbers.

1.7-Impact of the work titled ‘Alkhwarizmi on Hind’s Numbers’ on Europe was so great that Indian Number System was named as Alkhwarismi now known as Algorithm in Mathematics. AlKhwarizmi has called the Indian Numerals used in the book as Haroof Al Gubaar. Gunakar Muley[4] has pointed out that these numbers are Indian which were developed from Brahmi script. Muley further strengthens his assertion by bringing a manuscript written in Spain in 976AD.It should be remembered that Spain was under Islamic rule and to quote Rahul Sankratyaayan, Spain‘s capital Kardova had become Baghdad of the West in the matter of knowledge and culture during 10^th century.[5]

Sanskrit word Jeeba in trigonometry was translated as J-B. Latin translation mistook it for Jeb or pocket on chest and translated it sinus or chest which is now called “sine” in English is an example of the impact of Indo-Arabic relations on European re-awakening.

Alkhwarizmi was born in Kheewa city of Khwarism region of today’s Uzbekistan of Central Asia. Al Beruni (793-1048) was also born here.

1.8- Indian Astronomer Aryabhat (b476AD) was first in Astronomy to expound daily rotation of Earth. Abul Hasan Al Ahwaazi compiled his theories of planetary motions as “Al Arjbhad” during 8^th century AD. Faizi in Persian translated Bhaskaracharya’s Leelavati a book on mathematics in 1587AD.

There’re hundreds works which deal with contribution of Indian astronomer-mathematicians ranging from value of Pi to different branches of mathematics, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, spherical trigonometry etc and the joint impact of Indo-Arabic literature on European thought process. However only an outline has been given here to arouse curiosity among scholars and readers for further exploration in Indo-Arab cultural relations.

2.Ramal Vidya

2.1-Ramal or the art of prediction through dice is an excellent example of cultural synergy.

It is based on four elements fire or aatashi, air or khhaarva, water or aabi and earth or baadi of saankhya philosophy;

2.2-Science historian Paul Tannery (1897 AD) translates Ilm Ul Ramal as Sand Time or ‘earth element’ based time calculation which in my opinion, is erroneous. It reminds Dhooli Karma because in India mathematic earlier was called Dhooli Karma – spreading dust or sand on a board or earth for calculation, which was translated in Arabic as Haruf Al Gubaar, as pointed out while referring toAlKhwarizmi.

2.3-However names of all 16 shapes formed on dice- kabzul daakhil etc are Arabic and its muhurta is based on moon’s counting in Hizri calendar. This leads us to ascribe Ramal to Arabic origin

2.4-S.B.Dixit in his monumental work on History of Indian Astrology[6] has disproved this assumption with a chronological analysis on the basis of a book found by Babur a European scholar written between 350-500AD and mentioned in ‘Bengal Asiatic Society’ Journals which mentions Ramal type system of answering questions with Sanskrit and Prakrat nouns. Dixit further refers to GargSamhita of Tanjor Museum which contains a chapter with 235 shlokas on Paashavali, “Paash” in Sanskrit means “Dice”. He therefore concludes that since Sanskrit books were lost, later Sanskrit books on Paashavali or Ramal were written from Arabic text basis. Whatever might be the fact the Vidya of Ramal is an excellent exmple of Indo-Arabic exchange of knowledge.

3. Annual Horoscopy

3.1-In this system planetary chart is worked out for the moment when the sun after completing one year arrives at the same degrees in birth chart The system is called Taazik which is an Arabic Word. All its 16 planetary combinations employed in predictions are Arabic in name like Itthashaal Eeshraaf etc. But mutual degree-wise angles of planets called Dristis or aspects are Arabic and differ from traditional Hindu Natal Horoscopy despite their names being in Sanskrit. Again in assessing strength of planet Hadda strength is used in Taazik only which is nowhere used in any Indian predictive system while working out six fold strength of a planet called shad-bala.

3.2-In 1592 Balbhadra who living with King Shah Shuza authored ‘Haayan Ratna’ on Taazik System of prediction and acknowledged its Arabic origin by stating ‘yavanacharyen paarseek bhaashayam praneetam’ jyotish shastra etc.

3.3-It is pertinent to note that AlFazari and Al Beruni while translating predictive astrology from Sanskrit to Arabic has adopted 1 day =1 year system which was later adopted by westerners as secondary direction system of prediction for one year this is acknowledged by Alfraid Pears in his Text Book of Astrology written some 100 years ago.[7] But all these systems are somewhat different from Taazik Annual system of prediction.

4. Sawai Jai Singh’s Observatories

4.1-When European Astronomers were following circular orbits of planets Jai Singh (1686-1743AD) had discovered elliptical orbits. During the regime of Mohammad Shah Jai Singh worked out new tables of planetary positions after rectifying astronomical tables of Mirza Ulug Beg which had accumulated difference of 4 degrees and 8 minutes of arc by then. These tables are contained in his work called ZizMohammad Shahi for determination of Hindu and Muslim festivals more accurately.

4.2-Sawai Raja also constructed Astronomical observatories in five places with due consent from his ruler Mohmmad Shah, for more accurate positions of planets including the moon which was crucial in determining Hindu and Muslim festivals as both were moon based, because he found that metallic instruments get eroded in use and do not give precision. He sent Father Manual to Europe for collecting observation table prepared 30 years before for comparison. These observatories which were viewed by Jagannath Pandit as light-house of knowledge are also illustrations of ancient Indo-Arabic-cooperation. We can still draw some inspiration from them. He also got translated Ptolemy’s work Syntaxes called Almagest in Arabic into Sanskrit as Samrat Siddhanta. Sawai Jai Singh had also a good collection of instruments like Atro-Labs from Samarkand because these instruments were being prepared in Arab countries with good precision in 17^th century. Sawai Raja Singh’s work and attitude is of immense value because his period was of political instability yet he showed high wisdom in strengthening Hindu Muslim relations through calenderic Astronomy and also Indo-Arabic relations.

Before I conclude I draw attention to recent research done by Prof.C.K.Raju of Nehru Museum who played a leading role in the C-DAC team which built Param our supercomputer. In his research[8] he has established that in the field of European Gregorian calendar reform and in streamlining European navigation system Indo-Arabic techniques and rules of Laghu Bhaskariya a text on Indian astronomy authored by Bhaskar I (550-630AD) had played a decisive role.

The object of this paper is to remind that historical and scientific relations are part of a larger social spectrum which act like a bridge often abandoned; but visiting the past through such conferences can reaffirm our faith to evolve new patterns of relationships for making the planet called earth- more better.To quote Al-Beruni:

‘Knowledge in its true sense is always universal.

Thoughts and inventions originating from

any geographical region benefit all nations.’

India-Central Asia: Reflections from Astronomy and Astrology by Brijendra S. Shrivastava